Technologically-Assisted Language Learning

Prepared by Robert A. Quinn
Department of Modern Languages
Virginia Military Institute
Lexington, VA 24450
703/464-7241

Assisted by Richard A. Raschio
TALL Data Base and Records
College of St. Thomas
Mail #4169
2115 Summit Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55105
612/647-5626

Several articles that dealt with using various media to supplement and improve language teaching appeared in the December 1989 issue of Hispania (see pp. 1065, 1077, and 1078), besides those offered in the computer column and the audiovisual section. This fact serves to underscore the continuing and increasing interest in electronic devices and audiovisual aids at all levels of instruction. In an effort to reflect better the wide range of media that we can take advantage of to enrich our Spanish and Portuguese classes, this issue's multi media column contains information about slides and videos, as well as computer software.

Richard Raschio's article provides insights into how we can realize more fully the potential of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). In it, he suggests an intriguing idea: the experimental design used in traditional empirical studies may not be adequate to measure students' progress when they study with CALL. His article emphasizes the importance of sound methodology and employing technology well, rather than just «using machines».

In addition to other items, news about three videos for FLES students is included in our «Reports and Notes». For the first time, evaluations of video programs appear in the reviews section of this column. We encourage you to contact us if you know of new products, services, machines, or teaching materials that should be brought to the attention of our readers.

If you have not responded to the «Reader Interest Survey» which appeared in the preceding issue, we urge you to do so. For this column to be successful as a forum serving your interests and addressing your concerns, we depend on your responses, comments, and contributions. We thank the publishers who are sending us material and the teachers who have already offered to write reviews.

In future issues, we hope to include information on the audio lab, music, films, new hardware, etc. We encourage you to contact us, whether you are using «high tech» devices like computer-controlled video or «low tech» machines like slide projectors and audio cassette recorders, and whether you are interested in the effective use of sophisticated software like videodiscs and computer programs, or simpler «software» like maps, posters, and transparencies.

RQ

One of the strongest points in favor of using computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is that it can provide self-paced, individualized instruction. With almost any CALL material, students can learn at their own pace if we allow them sufficient time to study by themselves at the computer. To insure that computer-assisted exercises are truly individualized, however, we must pay careful attention to software design and the way content is presented.

Unfortunately, CALL has not yet lived up to many of our expectations. Before we fault computers, however, we must recognize that «it isn't what's wrong with the computer, but rather the way we are using the new medium...» (Quinn). Specifically, we must remember that computers are merely a delivery medium. They are, therefore, only as effective as the exercises they present. The exercises, in turn, are only as strong as the methodology upon which they are based and the appropriateness with which they are presented. The full potential of computer-assisted learning, I contend, will be realized only after software authors begin providing material that is both self-paced and tailored to our students' individual needs.

To help software developers begin producing more effective CALL materials, appropriate research must be carried out to identify the effects the computer has on students, particularly with regard to how they process information due to their individual learning styles. Simply stated, we need to under stand our students and know their learning strategies before we can reach them better.

In this article, I will first describe the design and limitations of an experiment carried out to foster such understanding. Next, I will discuss how data from the qualitative component of the study can provide insights to help software developers produce more effective CALL material. Then I will explain how information gathered in the qualitative portion can positively influence decisions about the content, instructional methodology, and features to be used in CALL tutorials for Spanish. This experiment, however, is an initial investigation of the role cognitive style can play in improving computer-assisted language learning. Because more precisely designed empirical studies must be conducted before we will really be able to individualize software, I will conclude by discussing three directions that should be explored in order to provide CALL lessons tailored to our students' individual learning styles.

Since empirical research suggests that it may be best to adapt instructional delivery and content to accommodate differences in the ways our students learn, we should be able to use the computer as a new means to suit variations in learning style (Hansen; Hansen and Stansfield). Before investing substantial amounts of time and money in producing CALL programs, it would be well worth our while, therefore, to determine the best strategies to employ in addressing processing differences among learners (Raschio). Although the relationship between how learners process information and how well they do in foreign language study has already been investigated, no clear and consistent results have yet been found (Hansen; Naiman et al; Hamayan and Genesee). The traditional «process-product» model of research, however, may not be the most appropriate tool by which to identify relationships between how individuals process information and specific features of the medium which delivered that information. On the other hand, an investigative approach that includes learner-generated information may allow us to identify features of the medium which best serve the learning style used by the majority of students. Until we design and begin using software that takes advantage of the features unique to computers-such as presenting interactive exercises in a variety of formats, branching to

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place students at appropriate levels of difficulty, and providing software conducive to learning through students' individual cognitive styles-such studies will probably not show marked advantages for students studying via computers.

Before this project, no research had investigated relationships between cognitive style, learning new foreign language material via CALL, and student attitudes toward using computers; nor had any compared the achievement of students learning via CALL with that of students learning the same material in a traditional classroom setting. This experiment not only investigated these relationships; it also asked students for suggestions for improving the lessons and took into account how suggestions from learners with varying degrees of field dependence-independence can make CALL lessons more conducive to learning¹⁷¹. Thus it had two parts: one quantitative and the other qualitative.

Sixty-two students in three first-semester classes of college Beginning Spanish were given the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) to determine their degree of field dependence-independence (Witkin et al 1971)¹⁷². Students in each level were randomly assigned to the classroom group (29 students) or the computer group (33 students). The goal of both the control group and the experimental group was to learn to form Spanish direct and indirect object pronouns and then use them correctly in both those contexts where they should appear as individual words and in others where they should be written as one word. Students were allotted two days in which to learn and practice each type of pronoun and its uses. A third day was reserved for testing¹⁷³. Materials for both groups were basically deductive in nature: the grammar was presented in context, followed by explanations and examples of the concept, and practice. Learners in the control group only used print materials that I had prepared, while students in the experimental group learned only from the CALL tutorials that I had developed.

Each tutorial began with a main menu accompanied by a statement of the overall objective. Students could select any lesson or could use the tutorial in a pre-determined sequence in which they would have to work through the material until they decided to stop. Each also began with its own objective. To highlight grammar structures, I used colors assigned specific meaning; to focus attention on how structures were related, I drew boxes around them.

Figure 1. Colored Boxes and Lines to Present Concepts

«Field dependence-independence» is a cognitive processing style involving individual differences in the way people habitually tend to perceive, organize, analyze, and recall information and experiences. This term refers to a person's characteristic reliance on either internal or external references during cognitive processing and social/interpersonal functioning. It may best be defined as tendencies to function with greater or less autonomy of referents external to the individual as manifested in social and cognitive domains (Witkin and Goodenough). Therefore, according to their degree of field dependence or independence, learners were divided into three groups: field dependent, field independent, and field central (a group intermediate between field dependent and field independent). To determine whether the attitudes of learners at the three levels of field dependence-independence differed, I asked students in the computer group to complete a «Reaction Questionnaire» after the last time they used each CALL lesson. Thus, I could compare their attitudes toward using the computer with their achievement, i. e., the scores they made. At the same time, I asked these students to fill out a Lesson Evaluation form, both to help

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me see how they reacted to the content, flow, and design of the exercises and to allow me to analyze their suggestions for improving the CALL tutorials¹⁷⁴.

The analyses did not reveal any statistically significant relationships between level of field dependence and student achievement, nor did they reveal any such relationships in attitudes toward the use of the computer. From these results, I concluded that the computer and the traditional presentations were equally effective for this group of learners. I also realized, however, that the role of this particular cognitive style (degree of field dependence) may not be evident in the results of «achievement» tests alone, since it is considered a process variable, rather than an outcome variable. In other words, achievement may not vary by degree of field dependence, but rather vary by how the learners process and internalize information that is presented to them (Wilkin et al 1978; Goodenough). As Long has observed, the process by which people learn particular information may never be fully discovered and appreciated by examining the «surface material».

Unfortunately, such an examination inevitably results from the typical «process-product» model of research. The traditional de sign of this experiment, in other words, may have forced the null results to occur, since the design did not take into account the nature of the variable (cognitive processing style) being investigated. These results caused me to question the validity of the way this experiment -and others like it have been conducted. They also motivated me to try to improve the design of experiments for determining the relationships between how students process information and how they learn another language. In addition, the results made me try to find a more valid way of translating these findings into better approaches for designing CALL exercises.

Although there were no appreciable difference in achievement for the control group and the experimental group in this study, we must be very careful to recognize this important fact: because of the information gathered from the two questionnaires in the second part of this experiment we now know how the students in the computer group perceived the lessons and we also have their suggestions for improving the CALL exercises. This data can provide insights into how these learners processed what they were learning. In follow up experiments, we can use lessons that have been improved according to their suggestions in order to tailor CALL to the cognitive style used by each individual.

In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, which by its nature must be «lock-step», CALL has the distinct advantage of being able to provide self-paced, individualized instruction. To discover ways to exploit this advantage, I investigated in detail the perceptions and suggestions reported by the students involved in my experiment. I analyzed their responses to the Lesson Evaluation questionnaire and separated them into two categories: Analytical and Emotional. If responses provided clear suggestions for the improvement of the lessons, they were classified as «analytical»; if they did not, they were categorized as «emotional». Most of the responses turned out to be analytical. Since they provided information about the clarity and helpfulness of the lessons, I then examined the responses to determine if a profile of responses by level of field dependence could be constructed. An analysis of the responses did indeed indicate a relationship between the type and frequency of responses and the degree of field dependence.

Four major categories emerged. They indicated the students' desire for: 1) an increase in the quantity and quality of examples, explanations, and error feedback; 2) assistance from the teacher while students do computer lessons; 3) more variation in the formats used to teach the material; and 4) letting students choose how they will progress through a lesson. This pattern held true for both field dependent and field central learners, but categories 3 and 4 were reversed in importance for field independent learners. To produce a response profile for each level of dependence, I examined the type and frequency of responses for each one.

Figure 2. Response Profile by Level of FD-I

Overall, field independent learners gave the largest number of comments and suggested more improvements than other students. Contrary to what was expected, these learners expressed the most need for human assistance during the lessons. From this analysis I also found that field independent learners were the most sensitive to the level of lesson difficulty, yet were the ones most ready to accept the use of the computer. Moreover, this group was the only one to mention a need for more freedom while progressing through the lessons. Finally, field independent learners mentioned a need for greater flexibility in «lesson flow» and format more frequently than members of the other groups.

Field central learners produced the fewest responses and suggestions. They, along with the field dependent group, were second in the frequency with which they expressed a need for teacher assistance during the lessons. This group was the most obvious in wanting more explanations and examples. Although field central learners indicated a desire for human intervention and more grammar explanations, they said little about level of difficulty and made no mention of wanting more flexibility or freedom of choice when moving through the lessons.

Field dependent learners were second to field independent learners in the number of overall comments offered. In general, however, they produced the largest number of emotional comments and, consequently, gave the fewest usable suggestions. This group appeared to be the least preoccupied with an increase in the number of examples and explanations, but did indicate a need for more freedom. Even so, they ranked second in desire for more flexibility of presentation. As expected, field dependent students least liked using CALL for learning new elements of Spanish.

The suggestions and criticisms made by the learners from the three levels of the cognitive style present several avenues for making the design of the CALL lessons clearer and more helpful. The features proposed below for future exercises are only a representative few of those that emerged once learner perceptions were taken into account. To produce more effective CALL lessons, software designers should pay attention to the needs expressed by students in this experiment. The challenge is for us to translate these suggestions into viable features that will help the largest number of learners, regardless of their preferences in cognitive style.

The qualitative portion of this experiment revealed that students wanted an increase in the number, type, and placement of examples and explanations. Studies of concept-formation indicate that when students make errors, we can help them best by reviewing those features of the concept that are causing the mistakes (Garrett). With CALL, branching routines based on the student's current performance can provide practice with trouble some aspects of grammar. (Branching, of course, may be automatic or result when students are allowed to choose their next step from a menu). Once learners have had more concentrated practice, the program can determine if they are ready to continue at the current level of difficulty either by automatically moving on or by advising students of their progress and suggesting what they should choose to do next. Feedback, the lesson's response to errors or a request for more explanations, should focus on the aspects causing the error. Students' suggestions clearly showed that a restatement of the abstract rule is not enough to help them avoid

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committing similar errors, particularly if they do not grasp how the form of the word conveys a specialized meaning. Since learners might not understand the concept in English, we should assist them with building a mental schema of the grammar concept before we expect them to use it appropriately (Garrett; Valdman).

Many learners prefer that the material be presented in more than one way. «Intelligent CALL», or computer programs that react to student errors, may be able to identify which formats (such as inductive or deductive presentations) and which contextualized uses of the concepts (in increasingly creative exercises) work best for particular students. For instance, learners could first be asked a series of questions, and then, based on their answers, the computer could route them to the presentation mode that they could most easily learn from. Alternatively, students could be given the chance to try various formats, and then, based on their performance, the computer could make the lessons begin appearing in the appropriate mode. These suggestions reflect research which indicates that it is best to monitor students' progress in order to insure that they acquire control over the content before they continue in a prescribed format or move to a higher level of interaction with that content (Robinson et al).

Access to help should be available at any time and should be presented in contexts that exemplify a word's meaning as well as the grammar being practiced. In this way students can begin to see the relationship between the concept, the meaning of the new vocabulary item, and the related surface structure. In addition to helping develop cognitive skills, lessons should challenge learners to employ previous knowledge. When possible, new CALL lessons should be tested with representative groups of students in order to insure that frustration is avoided. This experiment shows that most learners want to have other people available with whom they can compare their strategies and interpretations of the grammar point as they attempt to formulate correct responses. Fortunately, the computer can facilitate human contact during learning if the effects of various «grouping schemes» are employed (Johnson, Johnson, and Stenne)¹⁷⁵. Using these groupings can provide us with a structured way to observe different learning styles and processes.

We should probably change how we present grammar. In Spanish courses, for instance, all forms of the direct and indirect object pronouns usually are taught separately and then often combined and reviewed together, because of their grammatical and positional relationships. Students in both the control and the experimental group found this presentation to be difficult. The cyclical presentation suggested by Valdman may be very helpful (Valdman). At any given point we should expect students to control only certain parts of a structure, and we should add more aspects of each grammar concept only as learners demonstrate control over them. This procedure may reduce the processing load associated with learning direct and indirect object pronouns as well as that involved with other complex grammar points. It may also make it easier for students to learn to use them correctly.

The results of the «achievement» tests comparing the performance of the control and experimental groups did not reveal any differences in how learners attempt to process in formation when learning a second language, nor did the patterns of responses (related to the three levels of field dependence-independence) directly obviate these processes. Nevertheless, the suggestions most frequently given by learners indicate more about how various students want to learn a language than their test scores do. Comments from our students, along with our knowledge of effective methodologies, can help improve the modes we use for presenting lessons on the relatively new medium, the computer.

The lack of significant findings of this empirical study may well have come about because the research model was not adequate to accommodate the type of variable it was supposed to investigate. To improve our chances of achieving more accurate insights into this processing variable (i. e., field dependence) and others like it, we may need to change the design of empirical studies. An examination of the limitations of the quantitative part of the experiment, along with the observations of the students, suggest three directions for future research.

First, by directly observing students as they engage the material, researchers should investigate how learners process information. By asking learners to maintain diaries describing their daily attempts to learn, we may be able to discover the strategies they employ under different conditions. By having them give self-reports as they attempt various tasks, we can also gain information about differences in processing that may cause achievement to vary. Trained observers or the computer can monitor how differences in processing affect achievement. If we find that matching presentations with different types of information-processing is found to facilitate learning, we will be able to design activities that capitalize on that fact. Computers, of course, could be used to present the questions and then store both the questions and student responses for future analysis.

Second, researchers should investigate differences in performance that results from communicative formats versus traditional grammar-oriented methods. The following comparisons could be made: 1) Do differences in processing style relate to how much our students speak and write? 2) Do certain individuals perform differently under communicative conditions? 3) Do changes in processing strategies result in differences in the quality of student replies? and 4) Can we identify strategies that help students speak more accurately and more often, and then teach those strategies to students who do not usually employ them?

The third and final direction involves the computer's value in the learning process. To date, results of cross-media studies (i. e., those that compare student achievement of the same content presented through different media) have not yielded findings that allow us to state unequivocally that computers have a positive effect on learning. If we examine such studies closely, however, a possible reason for this situation becomes apparent: rather than really being adapted for use with the computer, the content and design for most CALL programs is still based on assumptions and procedures used for teaching via books (i. e., the print medium) and other, older electronic media (such as television or film). Content and method, of course, are important whether you are teaching via books, video, audiotapes, or computers. Student achievement appears to depend more on what is presented and how it is presented, rather than on the particular medium through which it is taught¹⁷⁶. According to several researchers, we should therefore try to determine how each medium and its specific features can be used best and which combinations of media produce the best achievement for the largest number of learners (Clark; Raschio and Lange). In this article, therefore, I have discussed research for improving the way we use a specific medium, the computer, and have suggested ways to exploit a unique contribution it can make to improving instruction: helping us tailor presentations to the way each student learns best.

For CALL to be effective, we must not only give our students access to computers for reasonable amounts of time; we must also understand their learning strategies and provide exercises that are conducive to their particular cognitive style. A sound pedagogical basis for de signing effective CALL lessons is needed, be fore we invest significant amounts of time and money in producing software. To provide this methodological foundation, researchers should collaborate with teachers to discover appropriate methods to investigate more extensively how various learners process information in different instructional situations (Raschio and Herzog). By seeking answers to questions like «How do students attempt to internalize language concepts and use them in communication?» and «What do students do when they read?» we should be able to identify the learning strategies associated with higher performance in a second language. Only then will we be able to use this valuable knowledge to produce truly individualized software and help our students improve their performance through computer assisted language learning.

Ariew, Robert. «Computer-Assisted Foreign Language Materials: Advantages and Limitations». CALICO Journal 2.1 (1984): 43-47.

Clark, John L. D. «Toward a Research and Developmental Strategy for Computer-Assisted Language Learning». CALICO Journal 5.3 (1988): 5-22.

Clark, Richard E. «Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media». Review of Educational Research 53.4 (1983): 445-59.

Garrett, Nina. «The Problem with Grammar What Kind Can the Language Learner Use?» Modern Language Journal 70.2 (1986): 139-48.

Goodenough, Donald. «History of the Field Dependence Construct». Field Dependence in Psychological Theory: Research and Practice. Eds. Bertini, Mario, Luigi Pizzamaglio, and Symour Wapner. Hilsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986. 5-13.

Hansen, Jaqueline. «Field-Dependent-Independent Cognitive Style and Foreign Language Proficiency among College Students in an Introductory Spanish Course». Diss. University of Colorado, 1980.

Hansen, Jaqueline and Charles Stansfield. The Relationship of Field-Dependent-Independent Cognitive Style to Foreign Language Achievement. 1981. ERIC ED 196 275.

Johnson, Roger T., David Johnson and Mary Beth Stenne. «Comparisons of Computer-Assisted Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning». American Educational Research Journal 23.3 (1986): 387-92.

Long, Michael. «Inside the "Black Box": Methodological Issues in Classroom Research on Language Learning». Classroom-Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Seliger, Herbert and Michael Long. Rowley: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. 1983. 3-35.

Neiman, N. et al. The Good Language Learner. Ontario: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1978.

Quinn, Robert A. Letter to the author. April, 1989.

Raschio, Richard. «The Effects of the Presentation of Spanish CAI Lessons on Field Dependent/Independent College Students of Beginning Spanish». Diss. University of Minnesota, 1987.

Raschio, Richard and Peter Herzog. «Two Approaches to the Development of an Information Processing Model for CALL Instruction». CALICO Conference. Monterey, CA. April, 1987.

Raschio, Richard and Dale L. Lange. «A Discussion of the Attributes, Role, and Uses of CAI Materials in Foreign Languages». Journal of Computer Assisted Instruction 11.1 (1984): 22-27.

Robinson, Gale et al. Computer-Assisted Instruction in Foreign Language Education: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Different Methodologies and Different Forms of Error Correction. Final Report. Center for Language and Crosscultural Skills. ERIC ED 262 626.

Tucker, G. Richard, Else Hamayan and Fred Genesse. «Affective, Cognitive and Social Factors in Second Language Acquisition». Canadian Modern Language Review 32 (1976): 226-41.

Valdman, Albert. «Toward a Modified Structural Syllabus». Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32 (1982): 34-51.

Witkin, Herman and Donald Goodenough. Field Dependence Revisited. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 1977. ETS RB 7716.

Witkin, Herman, Charles A. Moore, Donald Goodenough and Patrick Cox. «Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Cognitive Styles and Their Educational Implications». Review of Educational Research 47 (1971): 1-64.

Sets of slides and study guides with annotated bibliographies on Brazil are now available from the Latin American Institute at the University of New Mexico. Accompanied by a supplementary booklet in English or Portuguese, each set of 100 slides costs $30.00. The first three sets in the series are now being offered. The slides, presenting Brazilian cities and regions, illustrate topics like the colonial legacy of Minas Gerais, the Indian dilemma, and the sertão. The study guides contain surveys of Brazilian literature, music, history, arts, etc. Each costs $2.50; all twelve are $15.00. For details, contact Jon Tolman, Latin American Institute, 801 Yale NE, Albuquerque, NM 8713.

[Quinn]

Imagine being able to surpass the barriers of time and space to take your students on field trips involving both the public and private aspects of Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian life. What if your students could intervene in conversations, ask people to repeat, and even pause to consult the dictionary? Think of the cultural information your students would gain, the expressive ability they could acquire, and how motivated they would feel. Authentic videos from PICS (the Project for International Communication) now let you bring scenes from daily life into your classroom and manipulate them as you please.

Funded by a grant from the Annenberg/CPB Project, PICS fosters the use of foreign television materials in language classes and international studies courses. With offices at the University of Iowa, PICS draws together colleagues from high schools and colleges across the country and helps them acquire rights to materials, select appropriate programs, develop ancillaries, and publish video packages (including both printed and computer based support). It also assists in distributing these products on a non-profit, educational basis.

A broad selection of programs from RTVE in Spain and from Grupo Chaski in Peru are already available, and PICS is negotiating with producers in other countries, including Argentina and Brazil. These videos cover biographical sketches, cooking, economics, ecology, dramatic fiction, political and social documentaries, programs on literature, etc. All can be purchased on videotape, and a variety of materials will soon be released on video disc.

See our advertisement in Hispania, write to PICS at 266 International Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, or call 1-800-373-PICS for further information and a free catalog.

Patrick Shoemaker

Spanish Series Coordinator, PICS

FLES Programs in Action, a videotape produced by the University of Maryland, Baltimore Campus, should be useful to those interested in language programs for kindergarten through grade 8. It depicts goals and activities of various FLES programs and is accompanied by a brochure that further explains each type of program. The package will be available at cost. For information, contact Dr. Gladys Lipton, Dept. of Modern Languages/Linguistics, University of Maryland/Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21228.

[Raschio]

AMIGOS, thirty 15-minute television lessons for teaching Spanish to children in kindergarten through grade 2, becomes available in June. It can be used free by instructional television stations and includes ancillaries. AMIGOS is designed for use by teachers who do not know Spanish. Its approach, FLEX (Foreign Language Experience), stresses exposure to Spanish words, phrases, and Hispanic culture. As it reinforces skills and concepts taught in regular elementary school curricula, AMIGOS promotes an interest in Hispanic countries. For information write to Dr. Doris Stephens, CPB Project Director, University of Tennessee, Center for Telecommunications and Video, Room 402 Communications Building, Knoxville, Tn 37996. Also see «AMIGOS: A Television Series for Young Children», on pages 1065-70 of the December 1989 issue of Hispania.

[Raschio]

An exceptionally well-produced set of multi media materials for teaching Spanish to elementary and junior high students has recently come to our attention. Its principal component, a 120-minute video, is complemented by a guide for teachers and a student booklet. From the extensive exercises and activities, it is obvious that much thought and effort has been dedicated to producing this marvelous set of reasonably priced materials.

Appropriately titled REIR, JUGAR, HABLAR, it involves pupils in learning Spanish in a participatory, fun-filled way. The six-page teacher's booklet specifies lesson objectives, explains methods to be used, and gives detailed suggestions for effectively carrying out the exercises and activities. Printed in extra large type, the pupil's booklet is

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filled with cartoon-like pictures that can be colored, purposeful games, and puzzles which children can not only learn from but also enjoy. Divided into several segments, the video begins with a clear, concise introduction by another teacher, then focuses on a «master teacher», Patricia Suárez, as she conducts her class at PS 40 in New York City.

Besides watching it for their own benefit, teachers can play portions of the video and have their students participate as if they were in Suárez's class. For example, in one part she teaches a complete lesson «El Desayuno», which includes singing and other attractive activities that correspond to those in the student booklet. The exercises begin with repetitious practice, but the teacher involves her students more and more to help them give answers that are increasingly long and that demonstrate comprehension.

The filming and sound quality are excellent. The teacher on the video uses clear, natural Spanish which is well-paced but spoken at a conversational tempo. Because her gestures are an excellent aid to comprehension, she often points to props and realia that fill the colorful classroom, and her pupils are enthusiastic and respond well, students watching it will be motivated to participate.

For further information about this practical, useful multimedia package which is very conducive to learning, contact Gessler Publishing, 55 West 13 Street, New York, NY 10011 (phone 2121627-0099).

[Quinn]

Dartmouth College's software database is now available. For $3.00 you can obtain a printed list arranged alphabetically by author, a list arranged by subject area, or a Macintosh disk containing both, from Humanities Computing , 101 Bartlett Hall, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755. Originally prepared for the EDUCOM Working Group, this resource lists 116 software reviews from academic journals.

[Raschio]

Teachers, administrators, and researchers will find the Athelstan Newsletter highly informative. Dedicated to the practical, yet creative use of technology in the language classroom, each twelve page issue contains excellent items on topics such as language software, authoring systems, hypermedia, telecommunications, videotapes, and videodiscs. It also has interviews with those who know about technological advances and use them in language teaching.

Although subscriptions at $10.00 per academic year are welcomed, educators can receive this quarterly newsletter free by writing to Athelstan, Box 8025, La Jolla, CA 92038-8025 or calling 6191 552-9353.

[Quinn]

This entertaining, fast-paced, 50-minute videotape is packed with visual images of the areas of Spain most frequented by American tourists. In addition to providing scenes of popular regions, it introduces some fight history and culture. SPAIN-EVERYTHING UNDER THE SUN focuses on Madrid, with shorter portions about Sevilla, Córdoba, Granada, and the inevitable beaches of the Costa del Sol. It ends with a brief visit to Barcelona.

The areas chosen are covered well, but anyone who knows Spain will immediately perceive the «gaps»: the Basque Country, Galicia, Asturias, Extremadura, and Valencia regions, not on the usual tourist track, are missing. The emphasis is on the city rather than the country, and on monuments rather than people. Although Spaniards appear in the scenes, as a rule they are just included as part of the landscape-except in two «delicious» moments when a street cleaner walks up to the camera and demands «Bueno, ¿qué pasa?» and, later, when a sevillano coachman comments directly to us«Ehte e er barrio de Santah Cru». Would there were more moments like those!

The man and woman who share the pleasant English narration inoffensively anglicize their pronunciation of Spanish words and place names, but there is one error that stands out: when speaking of the bikini-clad Northerners on Spanish beaches, the narrator says «suezas» (with an English «z») for suecas. Only one aspect of this videotape really bothered me: the musical background. Greek music introduces and closes the video; thus, it gives listeners the false impression that they are hearing authentic Spanish music. In addition, «Muzak» occasionally intrudes in scenes with «modern» images. The musical background, I feel, is best when it features pieces for Spanish classical guitar.

This video offers a montage of images that would require hundreds or perhaps thousands of slides displayed in the conventional way, and -in less than an hour- it covers a wide range of sights and sounds that are interesting to both high school and college students. This tape could even be effectively used (particularly for advanced students already familiar with Spain's monuments) if the sound were turned off and a cassette with Spanish music were played in the background. In view of its price,

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SPAIN-EVERYTHING UNDER THE SUN is real bargain. As a matter of fact, I bought my copy of it in a discount store. A Spanish-language version of this tourist video is also available, under the title ¡ESPAÑA-TODO BAJO EL SOL!

Nancy J. Membrez

San Diego State University

This videotape is identical to SPAIN-EVERY THING UNDER THE SUN, except that it has been divided into two portions and has Spanish narration. Part 1 is entitled «Madrid y sus contornos»; Part 2, «Andalucía y Barcelona». The accompanying Teacher's Resource Guide indicates that this material is intended for advanced middle school students, second-year high school classes, and beginning level college courses.

Karen Steadman, a high school teacher in California, wrote the Teacher's Resource Guide included in this package. It contains not only the text of the videoscript, but also lesson plans for conversational practice, writing exercises, and comprehension quizzes ranging from activities for one day to exercises for a whole week of classes. An answer key appears in the back of the manual. In successfully segmenting this material, she has enriched the guide with city maps, menus, tickets, and television listings that stimulate student interest, discussion, and comprehension. There is even a small portion in Catalán. The black line masters may be legally photocopied for classroom use.

I take exception to two aspects of the Spanish voice-over. First, the narrator seems to have a Latin American accent. I find it inappropriate for a video on Spain (just as I would object to the use of a Castilan pronunciation for a film on, for example, Venezuela); the narrator's accent, however, may not bother other teachers. Second, the narration and grammar are at the «first-year, slow and simple» level (e. g., the impersonal «se» is the most complex construction used), yet the vocabulary is «second-year advanced»; This disparity produces an uneven effect. Although the visual image allows students to figure out the meaning of many words and phrases, some, like «araña de cristal» (a chandelier in a palace) may not be clear to novices, even with the prior preparation suggested in the sample lesson plan.

There are few errors in this material: Vayamos for «Let's go» on the videotape and in the script, and «camelo» for caramelo only on the video. While ¡ESPAÑA-TODO BAJO EL SOL retains the incongruous Greek music of SPAIN-EVERYTHING UNDER THE SUN, it is an impressive a visual montage with adequate Spanish narration. Although the sheer number of place names and monuments may be a bit daunting to students, the manual is very helpful. All things considered, this video would be a good addition to a department's resources.

Nancy J. Membrez

San Diego State University

PUBLISHER'S REPLY:

It was the consensus of several Spanish consultants that we should use Latin American voice, because beginning and intermediate students are usually exposed to that accent and because the material is in narrative, not dialog, form. One of our main purposes was to simplify the vocabulary and grammar of the English version without sacrificing authenticity.

Wolf Kraft

Vice-President, EMC

Using animated color graphics, UN DÍA TÍPICO introduces reflexive verbs and the Spanish words for articles of clothing, classroom objects, food, and leisure activities. Students go through a typical day's routine while they learn and practice vocabulary, reflexives used in morning activities, demonstrative adjectives, and the ir a + infinitive construction. Although a color monitor enables users to enjoy the state-of-the-art graphics fully, a monochrome monitor displays a satisfactory image. The package includes a 16-page manual with instructions, objectives, and numerous suggestions.

To start the program, users insert the Master Disk and turn the computer on. Clear, easy-to-follow directions appear. While users type all characters with the CAPS LOCK down, letters appear in upper or lower case, and, if necessary, accented. Students may stop, change from one activity to another, turn the sound on or off, or return to the main menu at any time.

Depending on the activity, learners can either begin by studying a vocabulary list or grammar paradigm, or access them while practicing. Exercises are either type-ins or multiple-choice (in which answers are highlighted one after the other, and students indicate their selection by tapping the spacebar). The first incorrect response elicits «¡No está correcto! Inténtalo otra vez!» The second time students answer wrong, «¡No, mira bien esta vez!» appears, together with the answer. If students respond incorrectly again, they see «No, la respuesta es (correct answer)». They then move to the next sentence. At the end of an activity, users can repeat the exercise, go to the next one, stop, or select «Additional Practice» and vocabulary. No score is given for «Additional Practice» and none appears if

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students leave an activity before finishing it.

UN DÍA TÍPICO contains six activities; those discussed here will give you a good idea of its contents. In Activity 1, a graphic cue flashes quickly three times, on the first try; unfortunately, students not watching the screen closely will not know what to type. The graphic does not flash when you try again or when the correct answer appears. In Activity 2, students fill in blanks (in closely-related statements, or in questions and answers) by using newly-acquired nouns and demonstrative adjectives. These exercises provide good reading practice; the graphics allow students to see the difference between esta falda and aquella falda. In Activity 3, the computer beeps as each classroom object (a blackboard, map, etc.) pulses on the screen; at the bottom the written word appears, then disappears. Then, in the context of a sentence, students type the Spanish word. My students found Activity 6 frustrating because it required them to select and match Spanish with English equivalents hidden behind each of 12 boxes. Students cannot learn, within a reasonable time at the computer, the 62 words in this game. Trying to remember which one is behind which box did not help! To finish one game, for instance, I had to match los calamares instead of los camarones -with «shrimp».

While this software is attractive and well-designed, it could be substantially improved. Students should be required to type accents, since learning to include them is important. I believe error-analysis should be added for typed responses; explanations or symbols indicating extra or incorrect characters, for example, would help students understand their mistakes and then answer correctly. Users should be allowed to review the words they spell wrong the first time. Finally, I recommend that lists be limited to 10 related words which can be learned prior to doing each exercise.

Andrew Sotelo, S.J.

St. Ignatius College Preparatory, San Francisco

PUBLISHER'S REPLY:

Although more complex error analysis might be desirable, we would have had to add it at the expense of the animated color graphics essential to the situational contexts of the program. The game activities were, of course, not designed to be mastered but to encourage repeated practice with the activities.

Gail Smith, Managing Editor,

Modern Languages, D. C. Heath

Como juego capaz de entusiasmar a jóvenes y mayores, es difícil superar Trivial Pursuit, disponible ahora en versión de computadora en español. El diseño y la programación son excelentes, como también los gráficos y el sonido. Es fácil escoger y cambiar opciones desde los menúes y controlar el juego con ratoncillo, palanca de controlo teclado.

Después de «disparar» un dardo que cae al azar en un sector numerado, un jugador mueve su ficha a una de las casillas dentro de los parámetros indicados por el número. Las casillas determinan las categorías de las preguntas (arte, ciencia, geografía, deportes, etc.). Estas no se distinguen por colores como en la versión de tablero, sino por distintos diseños y, para mayor visibilidad, con el nombre de la categoría iluminado. Una vez seleccionada la categoría, se ve un salón de aspecto cómodo donde el enano TP se pasea de un lado a otro. Cuando aparece la pregunta, el jugador contesta en voz alta, convoca la respuesta correcta, e indica si la sacó bien o no.

Trivial Pursuit ofrece más de 3,000 preguntas. Uno puede aprender mucho sobre la cultura popular española por las referencias a programas de radio, tirillas cómicas y personalidades que no conocerá el estudiante norteamericano. Hay preguntas sobre Lorca, Baroja, Picasso, De Falla y geografía española. Y también las hay tramposas: «¿De qué lugar es Pepe de Marchena?» (¡Naturalmente es de Marchena!) El programa permite agregar o dejar jugadores, usar cronómetro para fijar el tiempo, suspender o reanudar el juego y ver una representación gráfica de las respuestas acertadas por cada jugador.

A pesar de su eficacia como juego computarizado, Trivial Pursuit en español contiene limitaciones que perjudican considerablemente su valor pedagógico. Los editores en España evidentemente no creen que los acentos y la tilde sean necesarios y no los incluyen. Para un profesor de lengua los numerosos errores son una distracción irritante. Los mensajes muestran inconsistencias en la persona (alternación de tú y usted) y hay errores tipográficos y de ortografía como «facile», «puedos», y «elije». No fue nada fácil desentrañar «Tendrá que acertar una pronto» como el aviso «Tendrás que acertar una [contestación] pronto». Como los mensajes no son muchos, se repiten, y con ellos los errores. Es difícil justificar un mensaje como «Eres demasiado bueno, María» cuando los programadores podrían coordinar el adjetivo con una indicación del sexo de cada jugador.

Las instrucciones son compactas, en una hoja que también está repleta de errores (hasta cinco en una sola línea). Explican bien las operaciones con relación a la computadora, pero la sección sobre «cómo ganar» es demasiado esquemática para que un novato entienda bien lo que debe hacer.

En fin, el juego es entretenido y fácil de usar, pero no es para estudiantes que aún estén aprendiendo el idioma, porque necesitan modelos de expresión correctos.

Estelle Irizarry

Georgetown University

PUBLISHER'S REPLY:

We weighed the value of offering a culturally authentic game against not having the accents in this version used in Spain. We believe the game's pedagogical value lies in acquainting students with the culture of Spain and motivating them to use their Spanish. The authors have been advised of the typographical errors and are correcting them. Messages in the tú and usted forms accommodate all users, whether they should be addressed in the familiar or formal.

Janice Yaw

Senior Language Editor, Gessler

After displaying the title card, this HyperCard stack opens the Table of Contents, which lists 20 frequently occurring verbs. Users may click on any of them or «Instructions». The directions are clear, but include how to make the computer display acute, grave, and circumflex marks and the dieresis. The grave and circumflex, not needed in Spanish, may puzzle our students. Instructions are not given for producing the tilde.

Clicking on a verb takes the user into a 10-item drill. Each card has the same format: fields display the infinitive and a Spanish sentence with asterisks representing missing words. A blank field lets users enter the correct form. There are many «buttons»: «O. K.» (meaning that the user has entered an answer and wants it evaluated); «Tell me why?» (used for obtaining a short explanation of the tense); and «Translation». At the bottom of the screen are 14 buttons labeled with tense names; clicking on one of them displays a card with the six forms (including vosotros) for that tense.

When a card opens, the cursor is in the answer field. Users either type their response and press «O. K.», or click a help button. Drills require all verb forms except the present participle, past subjunctive -se forms, and vosotros forms. Thus, students may have to provide the infinitive, conditional perfect, past perfect subjunctive, polite and familiar commands, etc., in just one drill. If the response is correct, a box with «That's right» appears; students can then click on «O. K.» to move to the next card. When the response is incorrect in any way, a box displays the required tense and two buttons: «O. K.» (meaning «go to the next card») and «Try again». After students click on the latter, an «Answer» button appears. When they press it, the right form is shown for as long as they hold down the button on the mouse.

An item from the drill for hacer presents the sentence «Ayer llovía y * mucho frío» which gives the impression of using context to establish the correct tense. While many of the items are obvious from the context, I was bothered by others that were not. For instance, this sentence was displayed for saber: «Mi padre me dijo que Uds. * reparar el motor». When I entered sabían, the message «You need conditional» appeared. The instructions say: «If you think there is any ambiguity... you can always check the translation, which in all cases will solve any possible ambiguities». Ambiguities are not explained or even acknowledged; lamentably, the translation does not always solve them. For example, when the program displayed «Mientras la maestra estaba ocupada, los niños * tonterías en la pizarra», I entered escribieron but the program wanted escribían. The translation said «... the children wrote silly things...», which, to me, indicated preterit.

With ser and estar, the software twice required the preterite where the imperfect would be more common: (ser): «En el año 1961, John Kennedy Presidente de los EEUU» and (estar) «Pedro, ¿dónde * tú ayer a las diez de la noche?» For both, the program required preterit, supposedly because the verb «reports a condition at a specific point in time in the past». This statement, however, is not accurate. A specific duration of time requires preterit, but either preterit or imperfect may be used with a specific point in time, depending on the aspect of the action! A few more sentences were incorrect because of other errors.

Although SPANISH VERB TUTOR runs well, it has several drawbacks. For instance, the cursor is positioned in the answer field when a card opens, but if you use a help button and return to the card, you must point and click to move the cursor into the answer field. It should re-position automatically. No matter whether the error is an accent, incorrect ending, or even the wrong case, the pro gram displays «You need (tense name)». This feed back diagnoses the error as the choice of tense, when it may actually be the formation of that tense. While the stack appears to be an exercise on forms, it actually drills tenses. You cannot use the stack to practice just one tense; students must know all the tenses-including the past perfect subjunctive and conditional perfect. There are also typographical errors, and the program marks answers wrong if users fail to capitalize.

Within the limits of its design, SPANISH VERB TUTOR is fairly-well executed, and it contains relatively few errors. Its use of reference buttons shows how the interactive nature of HyperCard lends itself to language review. Nevertheless, be cause students must know every tense, it is not useful at the first-year level, and its handling of «ambiguous» sentences does not help students understand differences between tenses-except in terms of an English translation.

Robert Phillips

Miami University (Ohio)

PUBLISHER'S REPLY:

In version 1.2, we have changed the typing instructions and corrected typographical errors. To deal with ambiguity, several correct answers are allowed for. We agree the program is better suited for students beyond the first year and are publishing SPANISH TENSE TUTOR, which lets students work by tense rather than by verb. The program is also available in a version with sound, with all 200 sentences read by a native speaker of Spanish.

Accompanied by a clear, concise instruction booklet, this software is easy to install and use. It can be run in two modes: stand-alone or memory resident. For the former, you need at least 256K; to use it as a «pop-up» program, you need 512K or more. Although LANGUAGE ASSISTANT will run on a computer with two floppy-drives or even with just one drive, I recommend you use it with a hard drive and memory sufficient for the resident mode. Since this software takes up slightly over 100K in the resident mode, it may require as much as 640K of installed memory, depending upon how much room your word processor occupies. Should you wish, LANGUAGE ASSISTANT can be removed from memory without re-booting (i. e., without going through the start-up routine again).

This program features a dictionary (both Spanish-English and English-Spanish), «Topics», (a series of help screens about grammatical points), and «Verbs», (a database with over 2,000 fully-conjugated verbs). The software is smoothly integrated; each portion can be called-up while you are working on a document. Press ALT and S simultaneously to consult the Spanish-English dictionary, ALT and V to bring up the verbs conjugations, or ALT and M to see the menu from which any feature can be selected. Be careful, however, for this program overrides existing macros in WordPerfect and may also override them when used with other word processors. If you plan ahead, this feature should pose no problem.

The dictionary contains only about 8,000 words, and definitions are not always as complete as in competing programs. While it is true that definitions can be modified and expanded, one usually buys a program to avoid having to enter definitions. The producer says the dictionary will be expanded to 15,000 items. Even though this number still does not make it rival other programs, it would expand the dictionary's usefulness. LANGUAGE ASSISTANT contains two features that are very helpful: it lets users look up words while working with a document, and it allows for copying entries from the dictionary or verb database and inserting them into the document.

Because foreign characters cannot be created with this software, many of the words in the dictionary section are displayed without the stress mark. Although accents can be added, inserting them involves an awkward two-step process: type the letter to be accented, then type CTRL plus followed by an apostrophe. In the «Topics» portion, the help screens on grammar offer little information and are too limited to be of value, except for beginners. I recommend that the producer add more and better help screens, even if including them means distributing the program on three disks rather than two.

In «Verbs», users can find information quickly. This last section is undoubtedly the program's strongest feature and is worth the price of the product. Although I have not examined every entry, it seems to have been carefully written. The lack of progressive tenses is not a serious drawback; the producer says the present participle will be included for each verb in future versions.

LANGUAGE ASSISTANT has numerous positive features. The screen displays are attractive, and being able to run the program in a memory resident mode enhances its usefulness. I like the program's format and the fact that material can be added to its various portions. Although the dictionary and «Topics» section are of limited value now, improvements to them are promised. Overall, this software is very helpful, mainly due to the «Verbs» database.

Howard R. Cohen

James Madison University

[A new version of LANGUAGE ASSISTANT has just been released. It includes the Random House Dictionary and features over 30,000 entries. While the program arrived too late for a full review, the much improved dictionary enhances the program's usefulness].

[Quinn]

Computers for Professional Applications

Associate Editor of Computing
Languages and Philosophy, Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84322-0720
BITNET: LARSEN@USU

For specific information or suggestions, write directly to the appropriate area specialist below.

Ned J. Davison
Literary Computing
DEPOSITORIO HISPÁNICO¹⁷⁷
Languages and Literature, University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
BITNET: HISPANIA@UTAHCCA

Joseph A. Feustle, Jr.
Head of Telecommunications
NUESTRO BBS*
Foreign Languages, University of Toledo
Toledo, OH 43606
BITNET: FAC0395@UOFTØ1

Practically anyone who works with computers will attest that our reasons for using the machines are often self-perpetuating. As we become increasingly proficient in accomplishing certain tasks, we begin to envision new and innovative ways of solving problems beyond those for which we originally purchased the equipment. Such is the case described by Professor Philip Klein in the following article, «Computer-Aided Personal Library Catalog». Having mastered many of the advanced features of his word processor as a writing tool, he soon realized that they could also be used to organize and catalog information. Whether or not you can emulate the same procedures with your own equipment, you will nonetheless gain a deeper appreciation for the largely unexplored potential of computers to enhance our work. In fact, Professor Klein's idea might stimulate your own thinking to create even more unique ways of putting the machines to good use. If so, we would ask that you also share your ideas with us, so that other Hispanists can benefit from your experience.

Also in this issue we have initiated the promised sub-section for «questions and answers». We reiterate our invitation that you send us your queries; many colleagues are probably facing similar problems, and would welcome informative answers. We will do our best to supply them.

MDL

After several years of university teaching and research, I had amassed a typical collection of books, monographs, dissertations, journals and articles, but I was experiencing increasing difficulty in locating any given item in my shelves or files, or even remembering for sure if it was included within my holdings.

In part this was due to an overly-segmented filing system. I had one section of works stored alphabetically by author, another organized by topic (e. g. articles on the subjunctive), another in a file called «Graduate Reading List», another organized as a bibliography for a seminar on reflexive constructions which I was preparing, and yet another grouped around the topic of auxiliary verbs which I was researching for an article.

Yet my holdings were at the same time under-organized, in the sense that I had a large pile of photocopies in my faculty office which I had recently obtained but which were awaiting a thorough perusal before being filed. And I had another such pile at home. There were even some stray items floating around which did not come under any of the above categories.

I realized that the effectiveness of my future research depended partly on wresting some greater order out of this labyrinth. So I decided to develop a coherent, rational listing of all my holdings, utilizing the «sort» function (alphabetizing and ordering) capabilities of my word processor.¹⁷⁸

I have divided my catalog into three sections: one for «General Linguistics» sources, another for «Spanish-related Books, Dissertations & Monographs» and a third for «Spanish related articles» -more than a thousand items in all. Each is alphabetized by author, and multiple listings by a single author are ordered chronologically. I keep one printout in the office and another at home. My own library now seems to be more under my own control. I would therefore like to share the procedures necessary to accomplish such a task with colleagues who find themselves in a similar predicament.

The only requirement is that your word processing program include a SORT function. My system consists of an IBM/compatible computer with two floppy drives, a dot-matrix printer and MicroSoft-Word (version 4). Therefore, the specific steps I cite below are often couched in DOS/Word terminology, but the principles are applicable to most other equipment.

To create a catalog, start your word processor and make a new file, calling it perhaps CATALOG1, or something similar. Leave ample margins all around for possible future annotations on the printed page. Turn on your word processor's page-numbering function, so that the pages of the printout will come out numbered.

If you choose to title your document, it should begin with the word a; e. g. A CATALOG OF SPANISH ARTICLES. This is because the computer's sorting function will treat your title just like your data entries (bibliographical items), and will alphabetize it along with them. Starting your title with the letter a followed by <space bar> ensures that it will appear at the head of the document.¹⁷⁹ Or you could simply wait to add the title until after the bibliography has been successfully sorted.

Type in your first bibliographical entry, followed by <RETURN>. The entry is now formatted as a paragraph, which is the unit recognized by the MS-Word SORT function; i. e., Word sorts paragraphs, beginning with their first character. You might wish to double check that your word processor also sorts by paragraphs. If it takes some other unit as its sort base, then modify the preceding instruction accordingly.

Format the paragraph comprising the first entry as a «hanging indent» (see Figure 1). This ensures that if an entry is more than one print line long, the succeeding lines of that entry will be indented, making the author's last name stand out at the left margin. Paragraphs for all subsequent data entries should carry on this hanging indent format. Continue

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entering data, treating each item as a para graph; i. e., followed by <RETURN>. This part of the project can be very time-consuming, depending on the size of one's library.

Getting your source material close enough to the keyboard to enter the relevant information may be somewhat inconvenient. If you have both your personal library and your computer in the same office, then it may be a matter of grabbing an armful of books off the shelf or photocopies out of the filing cabinet, lugging them to your comp