University of Colorado at Colorado Springs

During the past few decades a major shift has occurred in the view of language taken by linguists, psychologists, anthropologists and philosophers, giving impetus to a corresponding change of focus in foreign language teaching. Old questions have been re-asked, and new answers are being formulated. What, exactly , IS language? How do people learn languages? What is the role of grammar instruction? Of the language classroom? How can we best teach listening, speaking, reading and writing? What happens inside the learner as he/she learns a language? How can the teacher accelerate that internal process? The re-asking of these questions has generated new ideas which have begun to permeate classroom practice, and whose influence will likely be felt for some time to come.

The broad term of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been applied to new methods, materials, and even syllabi that have grown out of these new ideas. Methods falling under the CLT umbrella share two common elements: focus on the development of communicative abilities in students rather than on the instillation of knowledge ABOUT the language; and a view of the learner as a creative participant in the learning process rather than as a passive recipient of information. Even the traditionally assigned role of grammar instruction has been questioned by second language acquisition theorists like Stephen Krashen, whose five hypotheses emphasized the role of the subconscious in language acquisition. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) is actively promoting «proficiency» as the principal goal of language instruction. Thus theorists and practitioners have turned their attention to the student's ABILITY in the language, rather than to their knowledge ABOUT it.

As researchers, theorists, curriculum developers, and classroom teachers address these issues, an enormous quantity of new and provocative material is being generated. This annotated bibliography is offered as a compilation of easily accessible works of both practical and theoretical orientation. These works may serve as an introduction to this rich new field for new and experienced teachers, graduate students, methods instructors refocusing their courses, and others who wish to expand their understanding of the nature of language and language learning. Unfortunately, such a bibliography can only scratch the surface of the offerings in this vast field, but interested readers will find more extensive citations in specific areas in many of the works listed. Those works marked with an asterisk are recommended for readers seeking a quick yet representative introduction to the field.

As linguists and language teachers searched for new ways to teach language, sociologists, anthropologists, philosophers and psychologists were re-examining the nature of language and its relationship to human thought and social interaction. Psychologists studied child first language acquisition; ethnographers studied cross-cultural communication; cognitive psychologists studied the workings of the human brain. Ideas cross-fertilized, and new disciplines arose or were accorded new attention: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, philosophy of language, first and second language acquisition research, etc.

Psycolinguistics (psychology + linguistics) investigates how language is processed in the brain, and the relationship of language to general cognitive functioning.

Clark, Herbert H., and Eve V. Clark. Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1977.

Deals with the psychological processes involved in listening and speaking, child language acquisition, memory, and the influence of language on general cognitive functioning.

Steinberg, D. Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind and World. London: Longman, 1982.

A fairly concise, simple overview of psycholinguistics.

Sociolinguistics studies how societal patterns are expressed, and even molded, by language.

Chaika Elaine. Language, The Social Mirror. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1982.

Explores language's social and affective implications. Specifically deals with American English, but a thoughtful reader will see implications for ALL languages.

Richards, Jack C., and Mayuri Sukwiwat. «Language Transfer and Conversational Competence». Applied Linguistics 4 (1983): 113-25.

Explores differences in conversational «routines» (e.g., «check, please», or «nice to meet you») across a variety of cultures.

Discourse analysis investigates the extent to which the meaning of language is expressed in units larger than sentences (i. e., paragraphs or conversations) finding that the meaning of the whole (the complete spoken or written text) is greater than the sum of the parts (sentences or individual propositions).

Coulthard, Malcolm. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Burnt Mill, England: Longman, 1977.

An introduction to the history and theory of discourse analysis and its implications for language teaching.

The early seventies brought a new demand for experimental support for language learning theories; and language acquisition research today is empirically oriented. Theorists and researchers are actively investigating issues from the order of acquisition of grammatical structures to the efficacy of error correction. They are trying to track the effect of various teacher behaviors, different learner styles, classroom organization, and affective factors on student success. The field is so fast moving that much research is «old news» before it reaches the journals -passed along at conferences and by word of mouth.

*Dulay, Heidi, Mariana Burt and Stephen Krashen. Language Two. New York: Oxford UP, 1982.

A good introduction to issues in second language acquisition research: learner and affective variables, first language transfer, error correction, order of acquisition, research methodology and classroom applications.

Hatch, Evelyn M., ed. Second Language Acquisition: A Book of Readings. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1978.

A landmark collection of research studies in the second language acquisition of children and adults. Technical, but worth it.

Hatch, Evelyn M. Psycholinguistics: A Second Language Perspective. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1983.

From phonology to discourse, an excellent synthesis of current research and views on psycholinguistics as it applies to the language learner. Somewhat technical.

Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Institute of English, 1982.

Krashen's now famous «Five Hypotheses About Second Language Acquisition». Discusses his acquisition/learning distinction; the role of grammar in language teaching; outlines current methods in light of his theories; and offers suggestions for classroom implementation.

Barasch, Ronald M., ed. Responses to Krashen. Cambridge, Mass.: Newbury House, in press.

A collection of articles analyzing problems with Krashen's theories.

McLaughlin, Barry, Tammi Rossman and Beverly McLeod. «Second Language Learning: An Information-Processing Perspective». Language Learning 33 (1983): 135-58.

Looks at second language acquisition from a cognitive psychology «information-processing» perspective; discusses relevant research, and makes suggestions for classroom applications.

*Stevick, Earl W. Memory, Meaning and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives on Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1976.

A classic compilation of memory research and its implications for the language classroom. Highly recommended.

As the concept of «language» broadened and evolved, and as researchers began to study language acquisition, traditional language teaching methods were challenged in terms of both WHAT was taught, and HOW. As early as 1966 Leonard Newmark, and others, were challenging «grammar» as the core of language pedagogy; positing attention to meaning, learning in context, and communicative needs as central variables in the acquisition process.

Ellis, Rod. Classroom Second Language Development. London: Pergamon Institute of English, 1984.

An excellent synthesis of research and theory as applied to the classroom. Somewhat technical.

Hendrickson, James M. «Error Correction in Foreign Language Teaching: Recent Theory, Research and Practice». In K. Croft ed. Readings on English as a Second Language. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1980. 153-73.

A synopsis of research on the efficacy of error   —162→   correction in the language classroom. Concludes that SOME types of error correction MAY help learners.

Kelly, Louis G. 25 Centuries of Language Teaching. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1969.

Superb insurance against «band-wagonism»: a carefully researched history of teaching practices in language classrooms past and present.

Long, Michael H. «Does Second Language Instruction Make a Difference? A Review of Research». TESOL Quarterly 17 (1983): 359-82.

A compilation of (often) conflicting research findings. Concludes that classroom instruction «probably» aids acquisition.

Macnamara, John. «Nurseries, Streets and Classrooms: Some Comparisons and Deductions». Modern Language Journal 57 (1973): 250-54.

Suggests focus on communication, and attention to meaning as the crucial variables in language acquisition. Claims language is not learned via conscious rules since we have not yet discovered all of language's rules.

*Newman, Leonard. «How Not to Interfere with Language Learning». In J. Oller and P. Richard-Amato. Methods that Work. Rowley, Mass.: 1983. 49-54.

This still provocative article argues that language cannot be taught «linearly and additively» (i. e., one grammar point at a time), and that grammar study is «neither necessary nor sufficient for learning to use a language».

Seliger, Herbert W., and Michael H. Long, eds. Classroom Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1983.

Research and theory investigating the effects of method, and learner and teacher variables on language acquisition in the classroom. Somewhat technical.

Adjunct to the new research in language acquisition, was a new interest in the learner: no longer seen as a passive recipient of teacher input, but as an active, creative participant in the acquisition process.

Brown, Douglas H. «Affective Variables in Second Language Acquisition». Language Learning 23 (1973): 231-44.

A review of theory and research on the personal, social, and cognitive variables in language learning.

Naiman, Frolich, et al. The Good Language Learner. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1978.

Reports the findings of a study designed to discover the characteristics and strategies of successful language learners.

Scovel, Thomas. «The Effect of Affect on Foreign Language Learning: A Review of the Anxiety Research». Language Learning 28 (1978): 129-41.

Classifies affective variables, and reviews research on one variable-anxiety.

Wenden, Anita L. «Learner Strategies». TESOL Newsletter 19 (1985) 1, 4-7.

Outlines learning strategies of good language learners, and recommends actively teaching learning strategies.

Communicative Language Teaching, (CLT) is the attempt to apply these new perspectives on language and learners to the language classroom-elaborating the possible syllabi, and classroom activities that would aid our students in developing communicative ability in the target language.

*Littlewood, William. Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981.

An excellent introduction to the possibilities of CLT, providing examples of exercise types, classroom activities, and their rationale within the CLT framework.

Nattinger, James. «Communicative Language Teaching: A New Metaphor». TESOL Quarterly 18.3 (1984): 391-404.

Describes current articulations of the CLT model in language teaching, and in language learning research.

*Savignon, Sandra J. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA 1983.

One of the earliest attempts to apply the concept of communicative competence to the language classroom. Reviews relevant research, discusses learner variables, materials, curriculum development and testing in the language classroom.

Widdowson, H. G. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1978.

Explores the possibilities of teaching language through content in order to emphasize language as meaning and function rather than as form.

Yalden, Janice. The Communicative Syllabus. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.

A comprehensive discussion of the options and processes involved in designing a syllabus based on communicative goals.

New methods and methodological viewpoints have sprung up to reflect the latest communicative trends. No longer tied to a single «true» method, language teachers are free to follow research and theory, develop their own personal set of working hypotheses about language acquisition, and choose their methods   —163→   based on their own goals and personal hypotheses.

Finocchiaro, Mary, and Christopher Brumfit. The Functional-Notional Approach. New York: Oxford UP, 1983.

This approach bases the curriculum on what we want our students to be able to «DO» with the language, rather than on formal grammar. Includes suggestions for curriculum planning, methodology, techniques and testing.

*Oller, John W. Jr., and Patricia Richard-Amato. Methods That Work: A Smorgasbord of Ideas for Language Teachers. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1983.

An excellent compilation of articles on current theories and methods. Highly recommended.

*Omaggio, Alice C. Language Teaching in Context: Proficiency-Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1986.

Attempts to integrate communicative approaches with grammar-based syllabi. Includes a quick overview of historical and current trends in language teaching, and extensive examples of classroom exercises and techniques.

*Stevick, Earl W. Language Teaching: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1980.

A thoughtful overview of recent methodologies.

The Natural Approach is endorsed by Stephen Krashen as the current method most compatible with his language acquisition theories, and has broad appeal throughout the language teaching profession. Its stated goal is proficiency in communication skills achieved by 1) allowing a period of listening before forcing speech production; 2) de-emphasizing grammar as only one of several pedagogical tools; and 3) extensive use of group and pair work in a low-anxiety classroom setting.

Krashen, Stephen D., and Tracy D. Terrell. The Natural Approach. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press, 1983.

Places the Natural Approach within the framework of Krashen's Hypotheses and offers guidance in classroom applications. Discusses reading, writing, speaking, testing, and gives examples of appropriate classroom activities.

Terrell, Tracy D. et al. Dos Mundos: A Communicative Approach. New York: Random House, 1986.

To my knowledge, the only college text published in the U.S. incorporating a non-grammatical-based syllabus. Based on Terrell's Natural Approach, the instructor's edition includes a brief overview of theory, techniques, ideas, and suggestions for Natural Approach activities. Although it is a college text, it offers many practical, usable ideas for teachers, secondary and post-secondary.

Total Physical Response (TPR), widely endorsed as a useful technique, was developed as a complete method by psychologist, James Asher. Based on memory research, students internalize language by responding to verbal commands. Livens up language classrooms while increasing retention.

Asher, James J. Learning Another Language Through Actions: The Complete Teacher's Guidebook. 3rd ed. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions, 1986.

A short summary of theory and research, a list of persons who conduct TPR workshops, and detailed classroom lessons (in English, but easily adaptable to Spanish)¹⁰⁹.

Seely, Contee. ¡Español con Impacto!: Total Physical Response Spanish. 4th ed. Berkeley: Command Performance Language Institute, 1985.

A «home-made» Spanish text using TPR almost exclusively. Gives little direction for teachers not familiar with TPR, but useful for those who are. Provides a sequenced curriculum with written reinforcement and pictures so students can study outside of class. (Available through Sky Oaks Productions.)

Suggestopedia is a controversial method, developed in Bulgaria by Georgi Lozanov, which uses «guided imaging» and «de-suggestion» to reduce learner-induced barriers to language acquisition. While Lozanov's claims for super-memory have not been substantiated in all U.S. replication studies, this method has been shown to increase oral proficiency, and lower classroom anxiety.

Bushman, Robert W. and Harold S. Madsen. «A Description and Evaluation of Suggestopedia». On TESOL '76. Ed. Crymes and Fanselow. Washington, D. C.: TESOL, 1976. 29-39.

Reports results of a Suggestopedia replication study which did not support all of Lozanov's findings, but did result in «vastly superior» communicative competence. Makes suggestions for adapting and applying the method.

Dhority, Lynn. Acquisition Through Creative Teaching: The Artful Use of Suggestion in Foreign Language Instruction. Sharon, MA: Center for Continuing Development.

An implementation guide for an adapted version of Suggestopedia -secondary and above¹¹⁰.

Scovel, Thomas. «Review of Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy, by Georgi Lozanov». TESOL Quarterly 13 (1979): 255-66.

A very critical review of Lozanov's book and method. While severely criticizing Lozanov's «pseudo-science» and reported experimental results, commends some of his pedagogical procedures.

Stevick, Earl W. «Interpreting and Adapting   —164→   Lozanov's Philosophy». Teaching Language: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1980.

Stevick's reflections on the ideas behind Suggestopedia, his own borrowings from, and experience with, the method.

Textbook publishers have been remarkably slow in responding to the new trends in language learning theory, perhaps afraid to take the publishing risk. (Random House's Natural Approach text Dos Mundos is a notable recent exception). Yet some books are available as theoretical or practical guides in specific areas of the curriculum.

Sion, Christopher, ed. Recipes for Tired Teachers. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1985.

Creative listening, speaking, reading and writing activities for beginning to advanced students. «Dedicated to all those language students ... who are just sitting in class».

Reading. Influence from first language reading theory and cognitive psychology has led to a new view of foreign language reading as a dynamic interaction between text (i. e., the printed page) and the reader (e. g., background knowledge, linguistic and strategic competencies, etc.).

Bernhardt, Elizabeth B. «Toward an Information Processing Perspective in Foreign Language Reading». Modern Language Journal 68 (1984): 322-31.

Questions current «readability» criteria and argues background knowledge as an essential element in reading comprehension.

Carrell, Patricia L. «Schema Theory and ESL Reading: Classroom Implications and Applications». Modern Language Journal 68 (1984): 332-43.

An outline of schema theory (effect of background knowledge) as applied to second language reading.

Dubin, Fraida, David E. Eskey and William Grabe, eds. Teaching Second Language Reading for Academic Purposes. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1986.

The first two chapters offer a good overview of current reading theory as applied to the second language reader.

*Goodman, Kenneth. «Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing Game». Journal of the Reading Specialist 7 (1967): 126-35.

A short article widely reprinted and quoted. Became the basis for first, and eventually second, language reading theory and practice.

*Grellet, Francoise. Developing Reading Skills: A Practical Guide to Reading Comprehension Exercises. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981.

A compendium of reading exercise types soundly based in current theory and research, although, as the title suggests, contains only a minimal discussion of theoretical rationales.

Smith, Frank. «Twelve Easy Ways to Make Learning to Read Difficult». Psycholinguistics and Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973. 183-96.

Re-examines and challenges twelve commonplace «rules» for teaching reading. May change the way you think about reading and what you do in the classroom.

Writing. The new focus in writing is on meaningful communication, and on the PROCESS of writing rather than just the written PRODUCT. What behaviors characterize a good writer? How can we teach these behaviors to our students?

MacKay, Sandra, ed. Composing in a Second Language. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1984.

A collection of essays dealing with theory, teaching strategies and evaluation of second language writing. Most useful for the teacher of advanced students.

Raimes, Ann. Techniques in Teaching Writing. New York: Oxford UP, 1983.

Many techniques and ideas, especially for high-intermediate to advanced students.

Speaking. For beginning and low-intermediate classes, the Instructor's Edition of Tracy Terrell's Dos Mundos contains excellent classroom speaking activities in which real information is communicated (keeping student attention on meaning) within carefully controlled grammatical scaffolding. Alice Omaggio's Teaching Language in Context also contains many ideas for early speaking activities. For more advanced students, the following resources:

Di Pietro, Robert J. «The Open-Ended Scenario: A New Approach to Conversation». TESOL Quarterly 16.1 (1982): 15 -20.

Discusses exercises which expand the limits of traditional close-ended dialogues, encouraging students to 'think on their feet' through a series of interrelated problem-posing dialogues.

Klippel, Friederike. Keep Talking: Communicative Fluency Activities for Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge UP, 1984.

Communication games for beginning to advanced students. (Written for ESL, but easily adaptable.)

Long, Michael H. «Group Work in the Teaching and Learning of English as a Foreign Language - Problems and Potential». English Language Teaching Journal 31 (1977): 285-92.

An overview of the advantages and disadvantages of group work with advice to teachers who adopt this new classroom format.

*——, and Patricia A. Porter. «Group Work, Interlanguage Talk, and Second Language Acquisition». TESOL Quarterly 19 (1985): 207-25.

Summarizes pedagogical and psycholinguistic arguments for, and research relating to, group work in the language classroom.

*Maley, Alan and Alan Duff. Drama Techniques in Language Learning: A Resource Book of Communication Activities for Language Teachers. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge UP, 1982.

Ideas to keep your students involved, active and using the target language from day one to the advanced level.

Rooks, George, Diana Scholberg and Kenneth Scholberg. Conversar sin parar. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1982.

An advanced high school or intermediate college text provides discussion activities with supporting vocabulary. Topics include: Crear una civilización nueva; ¿Cómo invertir una herencia?; ¿Qué deportes son mejores?; etc.

*Ur, Penny. Discussions That Work: Task-Centered Fluency Practice. New York: Cambridge UP, 1981.

In addition to offering ready-made discussion activities, presents criteria for developing and judging communicative activities «that work». Highly recommended.

Zanger, Virginia Vogel. Exploración Intercultural: Una Guía para el estudiante. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1984.

An outstanding text or supplement for intermediate or advanced students who have access to a local Spanish-speaking community. Explores cultural differences through carefully guided student interviews with Spanish speakers.

Listening. Listening has gained new attention as perhaps THE crucial element in language acquisition, especially at the beginning levels.

Gilman, Robert A. and Loranna M. Moody. «What Practitioners Say About Listening. Research Implications for the Classroom». Foreign Language Annals 17 (1984): 331-34.

A plea for attention to the «neglected skill» and a quick summary of the arguments for it.

*Winitz, Harris, ed. The Comprehension Approach to Foreign Language Instruction. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1981.

A series of articles dealing with listening comprehension as the BASIS for later foreign language acquisition. Recommended.

With a change in philosophy, curriculum and method, must come a comparable change in testing. Discrete point testing (i. e., testing one grammar point at a time), which had its roots in structural linguistics, has been preempted by more integrative tests -such as cloze exams, dictation, essay exams, or the Oral Proficiency exam. These exams are designed to give a picture of the learner's global ability in the language (as opposed to «knowledge» ABOUT the language). Since tests are important as molders of curriculum and goals (i.e., teachers teach, and students study whatever will be tested on the final test) integrative tests are important factors in a curriculum aimed at communicative competence.

Oller, John W., Jr. «Cloze Tests of Second Language Proficiency and What They Measure». Language Learning 23 (1973): 105-18.

Cites research support for cloze exams as a measure of global language proficiency.

——. Language Tests at School. London: Longman, 1979.

Addresses theory and applications of language testing in all four skills, based on a holistic view of language ability. Somewhat technical.

*——. «An Interview with John Oller: Language Testing Today». K. Croft, ed. Readings on English as a Second Language. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1980.

A short summary of current trends in integrative language testing.

Wesche, Marjorie Bingham. «Communicative Testing in a Second Language». Modern Language Journal 67 (1983): 41-55.

Summarizing recent communicative testing theory and applications and suggests criteria for developing and judging communicative tests.

ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language, 1985.

Guidelines used in assessing functional ability in a foreign language developed by ACTFL from the oral proficiency exam used by the U. S. Foreign Service Institute. The guidelines have become identified with methods an d curriculum development -for which see the ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Company 15-17 (1983-1987).

Hispania [Publicaciones periódicas]. Volume 71, Number 1, March 1988