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Glenn Morocco
Margot Soven
La Salle University, Philadelphia In the hierarchy of recent pedagogical practices writing holds a low priority and has remained the stepchild of teaching in foreign language classes. The emphasis on the acquisition of proficiency in listening and speaking has certainly revolutionized foreign language instruction. However, as several recent articles on writing in foreign language instruction point out, writing has been limited to academic exercises, copying dialogue sentences and pattern drills (Cooper, 1977; McKee, 1981; Cooper and Morain, 1980). Writing as a means of self-expression has not been emphasized nor has the full potential of writing as a learning tool been explored. Because most writing instruction in introductory and intermediate courses stops at the sentence level (McKee 275), students may be frustrated in advanced foreign language classes where they are often expected to write original essays. This may lead some to abandon foreign language study prematurely (McKee 273). Also, without having to write to express their thoughts and feelings, students cannot experience the full and unique possibilities of expression in a second language. Writing demands that the language be used more carefully, more reflectively than in speech (Emig 123). The writing process encourages students to consider syntactic options and word choices that may go undiscovered if they do not have the chances to write in formats other than exercises. The Writing Across the Curriculum
Movement
The Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) movement suggests a variety of pedagogical techniques that can reform foreign language writing programs. WAC procedures can further the already established goals of language teaching, that is to teach foreign language on the functional levels of the four widely accepted skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Integration of WAC methods can create an active, productive classroom in which the gaps between text book drills and meaningful communication are bridged. The foreign language instructor can help students view writing as a thinking tool by emphasizing three practices: the frequent use of informal writing in class to stimulate conversation, writing assignments framed in a rhetorical context, and, as studies recommend, emphasis on the writing process itself (McKee 274-75). National attention to the «writing crisis» has inspired composition specialists, who typically teach in English Departments, to develop a pedagogy that can help other disciplines and professions to incorporate writing in their undergraduate and graduate courses. WAC theory proposes that all teachers can help students become competent writers not only by teaching the conventions of professional documents and correcting grammar, but also by encouraging them to use writing as a tool for learning. Teachers in every field can help students to view writing as a process best shaped by purpose and audience. To this end, teachers from both graduate and undergraduate faculties participate in workshops usually conducted by composition specialists. These workshops emphasize the importance of relating assignments to course objectives, dear presentation of assignment instructions, stipulating a purpose and audience for writing, using class time to present assignments, sequencing and staging assignments, and providing explicit criteria for evaluation and grading. Additionally, the workshops offer a range of methods for implementing these suggested approaches (Soven 3). WAC programs are based on the assumption that writing is a
powerful learning tool as well as an essential communication skill. Writing is
a more faceted activity than listening, speaking or reading. Studies have
indicated that writing enhances memory, aids reading comprehension, stimulates
invention, deepens the capacity to form relationships between ideas, and
sharpens critical thinking (e. g.,
La Salle University initiated a WAC project in 1982. The project combines a six day summer workshop with periodic group meetings and one-to-one collaboration with our writing specialist during the academic year. The work shops provide opportunity for discussion of relevant theory on the relationships between writing and learning and offer a repertoire of methods for applying these theories in individual courses. Instructors representing different disciplines, including members of the Foreign Language Department, meet with the composition specialist to review writing assignments in the light of new theories on the use of writing in undergraduate programs. Subsequent sessions are held to further refine and individualize approaches to assignment construction and implementation. The impact of this year-long process is evaluated through both teacher and student commentary. As a result of the La Salle WAC workshop, we decided to modify Spanish 301-302, Advanced Conversation and Composition, with the introduction of innovative writing instruction. While informal (ungraded) writing had be en used in this class previously, the potential of this pedagogy had not been fully examined. Emphasis had remained on the manipulation of the target language, and the major focus had been on the mastery of grammatical principles. Also, compositions were assigned as homework, were designated by topic only, and were graded principally on grammatical correctness. Neither the student nor the instructor was freed from the preoccupation with grammar, so often thought to be indispensable to good writing in a foreign language (Haynes 81). The instructor had concluded, even before participating in the WAC workshops, that weak grammar was not the main problem with regard to composition. At one time, he had assumed that college students of third year Spanish classes were sufficiently prepared to attain an advanced level of oral and written expression. However, what became more and more apparent was that most writing difficulties at the intermediate and advanced levels of language study are the result of poor composing strategies rather than deficiencies in grammar or vocabulary (McKee 274). With this in mind, the new approach was adopted to remedy poor performance in composition skills and secondarily to improve class participation. Both problems can be partially attributed to the mistaken supposition that third year students, because of their consider able knowledge of grammatical principles, are ready to speak and write at a sophisticated level. However, the skills of speaking and writing are of a common productive nature which necessitates guidance and training directed toward the thinking process. This kind of instruction is just as vital as acquisition of grammar if students are to reach a mature level of expression (Emig 126). Expression, then, was to become our principal concern. We decided to reorganize the course requirements and materials around an integrated plan of ongoing informal class writing and several short «formal» essays per semester. The plan included continuous note book assignments, notes for talks and discussions, summaries of recordings, as well as short informal papers. Our decisions were motivated by the following rationale: Informal writing that is not graded, writing that emphasizes content rather than form, is useful for stimulating thought and promoting an effective learning environment. In WAC methodology, it is used to capture and encourage thinking as a rehearsal preceding conversation and as preparation for formal writing. It includes notes of any kind, spontaneous responses to questions in class, and journals. For this type of writing, the writer is his/her own audience, though notes or journals can be shared with classmates for the purpose of review and further development. Informal writing increases student involvement because: 1) When students are writing, everyone is engaged in some stage of original expression. Only one student can speak at a time during a class discussion, but everyone can write simultaneously. 2) Writing enables students to participate according to their ability and learning style. For example, those reluctant to speak before the class can write and share their writing with a small peer group. Also, the visible text encourages the spontaneous student to think before speaking. In advanced classes, this type of attention to individual
student needs is especially important because, beyond individual differences in
aptitude, students have diverse training and
In addition to informal writing assignments which promote a spontaneous though perhaps fragmented product, students should write complete messages for specified audiences and purposes in upper division foreign language courses. At this stage, students can profit more from writing their own compositions -letters, brief essays, descriptions and narratives- than from completing grammatical exercises. Recent composition theory and research suggests that students seem more inclined to learn particular grammatical constructs when they need to use them to communicate their own ideas. They seem to recognize errors more readily when written in their own compositions (Moffett 212). Framing formal writing assignments in rhetorical context is another method advocated by WAC programs. A well planned writing assignment identifies the reason for writing as well as the reader of the paper. Students cognizant of the purpose and audience for their essays are apt to express their thoughts with good results. Furthermore, stipulating purpose and audience in assignments motivates students to view them as preparation for writing outside of school (Holder and Moss 3) or for advanced classes in language and literature. Advanced courses and bilingual professions will require writing in formal genres. Although inappropriate to assign specialized writing at the outset of any general language course, instructors can prepare students to write reports, critiques and essays by teaching them how to develop their ideas through the process of organizing, drafting and revising brief compositions. Despite the possible simplicity of these early essays, it is important to recognize that by writing them, students are gaining practice in applying the habits of composition to a foreign language. (It should be noted that WAC emphasizes the obvious pedagogical advantage of distributing formal assignments in written form. This practice is strongly recommended in the La Salle workshop.) The following assignments demonstrate how informal and formal writing tasks were implemented in Spanish 301-302 at La Salle. Informal writing became an integral part of the course. To begin one assignment, writing prose summaries from recorded dialogues, students were first asked to take notes in the language laboratory. Then, in class, they were divided into groups to verify their notes and to respond to a list of questions from the instructor. All this was done with the stipulation of discussing their work in Spanish only. Students became actively engaged in conversation, adding and deleting material from their notes. The teacher moved around the room, consulting with individuals or small groups, and enforcing the «speak-Spanish-only» rule while the other groups remained on task. Finally, a representative from each group was asked to report in Spanish on the group's reactions to the list of questions. Prior to using WAC techniques, students might have been asked to act out the recorded dialogues or to engage in a question/answer session; fewer students would have participated under such circumstances. This exercise is a good example of using informal writing as the focal point of class discussion and stimulus for conversational practice. Furthermore, students evaluated their notes prior to writing their final summaries. If students had not been asked to bring their notes to class, they might have written their summaries without adequate preparation. A formal assignment in the same class, the job application letter, was designed to give the students the opportunity to write an organized message for a particular purpose and audience. It was staged in two parts. The instructor recognized that to write the letter in Spanish, the students needed to master the vocabulary suitable for addressing their readers. The instructor planned an informal writing exercise to help them acquire this vocabulary. Students prepared a set of notes from which they presented a brief talk about their future professional plans, using the class as a simulated audience. Like the previously mentioned note-taking exercise, this informal writing assured that students would practice the new vocabulary and grammar with a chance for criticism or questions from their peers. Also, the review of the notes and the brief presentations produced a class dominated by student speech The class was now ready to draft a letter to a future
employer, transforming their
The last formal writing assignment of the semester, the traditional thesis support essay, also benefitted from the staging strategy. This assignment, the most demanding in the course, required students to write in the expository form. By now, students were accustomed to jotting down initial thoughts, preparing drafts, and sharing their writing with peers. They had also learned to recognize main ideas in their reading materials in order to write summaries. It was a natural step to move the students from summary writing to producing their own essays. In the past, when the instructor had assigned essays, students had shown difficulty developing and supporting thesis statements. In general, students experience problems in transferring the thinking skills they use writing in their own language to writing in a foreign language. We introduced this assignment through a series of pre-writing activities. Students were asked to identify thesis statements in Spanish readings as well as in auditory exercises. These activities were followed by a lesson in understanding the concept of the thesis statement taught in English by the composition instructor. Then students revised stock thesis statements in Spanish and experimented developing their own. Lastly, students shared their efforts in class, restating and evaluating each other's sentences in Spanish. After these initial efforts, students went on to compose the short thesis statement essay. Throughout the preparatory stages of this assignment students were actively engaged in all aspects of foreign language instruction through writing. Once having identified thesis statements in recorded and reading materials, they listed them. During the composition instructor's lesson, they wrote responses to questions and promptings. The exercises in Spanish required written responses as well as recitation and evaluation of those responses. The pre-writing instruction for this essay gave students invaluable practice in both speaking and expository writing in Spanish. By emphasizing informal writing and pre-writing instruction in general, we have focused on the process of writing rather than its product. Having students write with purpose and audience in mind underscores the importance of writing as a means of authentic communication in the foreign language. The use of these methods suggests to students that they can use writing to think and communicate in the target language. One of our intentions was to lessen students' preoccupation with grammar and usage, often viewed by them as the sole aim of learning to write in a foreign language. The results of this pilot project were encouraging, although the instructor was initially apprehensive about implementing a new methodology. Students unaccustomed to doing this kind of writing in a foreign language class were able to adapt readily to a classroom format that demanded a high level of writing and class participation. Their course evaluations indicated general satisfaction with the new approach. Several students commented that they appreciated the opportunity to write in common genres such as the job application letter in Spanish. Also, the instructor saw evidence of the benefits of pre-writing instruction in student papers. The content seemed to reflect students' sincere effort to develop their ideas rather than to mechanically fulfill a homework assignment, as had often been the case in past semesters. We know that foreign language instructors value the teaching of writing. However, a 1979 review article on the impact of the audiolingual revolution reveals that very little instructional time was given over to writing and met hods of teaching writing were not sufficiently de fined (Warriner 82-85). Proponents of the recent «proficiency» concept in foreign language education, in attempting to address the problem, have advocated approaches similar to those in this article for the teaching of writing skills (Omaggio 221-72). The WAC movement fortunately emerges at a time when foreign language education is seeking new approaches to writing instruction. WORKS CITED
Britton, James, et al. The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18). London: Macmillan Education, 1975. Cooper, Thomas and Genelle Morain.
«A Study of Sentence-Combining Techniques for Developing Written
Cooper, Thomas C. «A Strategy for Teaching Writing». Modern Language Journal 61.5-6 (1977): 251-56. Emig, Janet. «Writing as a Mode of Learning». College Composition and Communication 28.2 (1977): 122-28. Haynes, Elizabeth. «Using Research in Preparing to Teach Writing». English Journal 67.1 (1978): 82-88. Holder, Carol and Andrew Moss. Improving Student Writing: A Guidebook for Faculty in All Disciplines. California State Polytechnic University, 1982. McKee, Elaine. «Teaching Writing in the Second Language Composition/Conversation Class at the College Level». Foreign Language Annals 14.4 (1981): 273-78. Moffett, James. Teaching the Universe of Discourse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985. Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1986. Soven, Margot. Write to Learn: A Manual for Faculty. Philadelphia: La Salle University, 1986 (In-house publication). Warriner, Helen P. «Foreign Language Teaching in the Schools-1979: Focus on Methodology». Modern Language Journal 64.1(1980): 81-87. 
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